Printing wasn’t widespread until the end of that century, and before the use of the press, books were made by hand from start to finish. The printing press is said to have been invented in 1450, but that’s just a convenient estimate. The heyday of marginalia was between the 12th and 14th centuries, more or less. “Marginalia helps us recognize that medieval society was as complex as our own.” Gargoyles, for instance, could be thought of as a kind of marginalia. It can describe sculptural details that might seem grotesque or nonsensical to modern eyes. But the term is also sometimes applied to other arts, like architecture.

In the medieval context, marginalia is understood to mean images that exist outside or on the edge of a page’s main program. Kaitlin Manning: Generally speaking, marginalia simply means anything written or drawn into the margins of a book. 99v.) Collectors Weekly: How is marginalia defined? 294r.) Above: A typical page from the Rutland Psalter shows a variety of decorative marginalia. Top: Wild animals at war in the Breviary of Renaud and Marguerite de Bar, Metz ca. We recently spoke with Manning about the origins and hidden meanings behind this fantastic art form. We’ll probably never understand all the symbolism used in marginalia, but what have we learned about medieval life through these absurd images? Though the meaning of specific images is still hotly debated, scholars conjecture that marginalia allowed artists to highlight important passages (or insert text that was accidentally left out), to poke fun at the religious establishment, or to make pop-culture references medieval readers could relate to. “I loved the idea that marginalia was such an overlooked part of the medieval experience,” says Manning, “so much that up until 20 or 30 years ago, scholars were completely uninterested and wrote it off as trivial or not meaning anything.” Manning was first drawn to marginalia while studying at the Courtauld Institute in London, where she worked with some of the most significant illuminated-manuscript collections in the world, including those at the British Library. Kaitlin Manning, an associate at B & L Rootenberg Rare Books and Manuscripts, says part of the reason why modern viewers are so captivated by marginalia is because we expect this era to be conservative when compared to our own society. For example, few Monty Python fans realize that the comedy group’s silly animations are direct references to artwork in illuminated manuscripts. (Illuminated simply means decorated with gold or silver foil.) “I think it’s such a shock when you have this idea in your head of what medieval society was like,” says Manning, “and then you see these bizarre images that make you question your assumptions.” The wild mixture of illustrations challenges our contemporary need to compartmentalize topics like sex, religion, humor, and mythology. “Imagination is a much freer thing in the margins of a book it’s allowed to run amok.” The educated elite hired artisans to craft these exquisitely detailed religious texts surrounded by all manner of illustrated commentary, known today as marginalia. That’s because the margins of these handmade devotional books were filled with imagery depicting everything from scatological humor to mythical beasts to sexually explicit satire. Though we may still get a kick out of poop jokes, we aren’t used to seeing them visualized in such lurid detail, and certainly not in holy books. But in medieval Europe, before books were mass-produced and reading became a pastime for plebes, these lavish manuscripts were all the rage-if you could afford them.

Flipping through an illustrated manuscript from the 13th century, you’d be forgiven for thinking that Jesus loved a good fart joke.

Medieval illuminations grotesque